Category: Vineyard Info

Common Trellis Systems and Choosing the Right One

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Jensen Precast trellis system pictured in a vineyard

Photo Credit: Jensen Precast

By: Alyssa L. Ochs

In the modern vineyard, trellis systems consist of posts, wires or other structures used to support grapevines and help them grow. The concept of a trellis is relatively simple, but choosing the right one could mean the difference between a successful harvest and plants struggling to survive.

We connected with industry experts and vineyards with effective trellis strategies to share insights about the options available and how to choose the best one for your vineyard.

The Importance of Trellises

  Trellises provide structural support for the vines and fruit in a way sturdy enough to sustain significant wind. They also help vines get adequate sunlight for photosynthesis while ripening and developing sugars for high-quality fruit. An effective trellis system helps circulate the air around plants and reduce disease risk without excessive use of herbicides and pesticides.

  Meanwhile, trellises help reduce the labor needed for weeding because the vines are lifted off the ground, making weeding tasks easier. Spraying the vines with a trellis is easier because the structural support shapes the canopy. At harvest, a trellis makes it easier to pull grapes by hand, reducing labor needs and costs.

  Overall, a trellis is essential to effective vineyard design and can ensure a vineyard’s success or failure. By supporting the vine and fruit in a way plants cannot naturally do, trellises help vineyard owners produce healthy fruit and improve the quantity and quality of their grapes.

Types of Trellis Systems

  Vineyards can experiment with various trellis systems based on conditions and personal preferences. Vertical shoot positioning (VSP) involves a single-curtain system with movable catch wires and a stationary cordon wire. This system trains the vines to grow vertically and is ideal for narrow-row spacings. VSP systems often have four to six wire levels, making pruning and harvesting easier. However, installing them can be costly and require maintenance beyond other trellising methods.

  Another trellis option is the Geneva double curtain (GDC), which incorporates a double canopy system and canopies with bilateral cordons. This method ensures the vines get adequate light and canopies are divided horizontally for shoot positioning.

  Vineyards can also try the four-arm kniffin (FAK) method for trellising, which involves a four-arm, quadrilateral cane system with equal spacing on the wire. Fruit canes grow between the arms, making it ideal for small vineyards. A FAK with a three-wire trellis system is easy to build and cost-effective. It is also versatile and can adapt to various row spacings.

  Top wire cordon (TWC) trellis systems work for flat sites and have cross arms, posts and top wires strung from the post’s bottom to the arms’ ends. This design can accommodate row spacings from about three to 10 feet and is ideal for vines growing downward. However, they offer less overall support and can damage wind and sun.

  There’s also the umbrella kniffin (UK) method, which uses two wires at 45-degree angles to grow vines between them. Vineyards in warm climates with high winds often find success with this method. It’s simple and easy to install but takes up more space than other systems, and weed control can be an issue.

  High-wire cordon trellis systems work well with cold-hardy grapes and require minimal labor and investment. This system involves one to three wires, with the top wire four to six feet from the ground. Pruning is easy with this system, which allows for vineyard mechanization more than more complex trellis systems.

What Vineyards Are Using

  Four Daughters Vineyard in Spring Valley, Minnesota uses two different trellis systems in its vineyard, primarily a mid-wire cordon with VSP-trained vines and some lyre trellis. Four Daughters is a winery, cidery, restaurant and event center on a sprawling estate with a six-acre vineyard in rural southeastern Minnesota.

  “We are working to retrain the vines on the lyre system to VSP and convert the trellis as well,” Hannah Hanlon, Four Daughters’ winemaker and vineyard manager, told The Grapevine Magazine. Hanlon said that the mid-wire cordon with VSP works well for the vineyard and the vines.

  “Many vines are best suited to a high-cordon; however, working on high-cordon systems is really hard on the back, and those vines may not be as perfect as VSP, but they will produce and grow just fine,” Hanlon said. “Similarly, the lyre system we have is hard to hedge and hard to penetrate the center of the canopy with sprays; VSP would solve those issues. We feel fortunate that our site is on limestone and less vigorous than most in Minnesota, and we can grow a double cordon VSP vine without unmanageable vigor. Vines are incredibly versatile and resilient. Finding perfection is not my goal in the trellising and training in the vineyard; my goal is to keep the vines happy enough and keep them easy to be worked on.”

  Concerning trellis-related supplies, Hanlon from Four Daughters Vineyard shared, “I use grow tubes from MDT to grow up vines when I need to retrain trunks or replant; this protects them from herbicide and rabbits. With these, I use bamboo poles to hold them in place. I use rubber black ties to hold the vines onto the trellis system, a Maxtapener for the growing season tying and Felco pruners, saws and loppers for pruning. We net our vines and use clips to hold those nets in place to protect them from birds. I have an herbicide sprayer, fungicide sprayer and tractor. We have a tractor-mounted hedger. For repairing the trellises, I have a crimping tool, strainer handle, hammer and extra trellising supplies.”

  Hanlon recommends the Minnesota Grape Growers Association’s book Growing Grapes in Minnesota (available for free download) to compare the costs of different trellis systems.

  Meanwhile, in New Haven, Vermont, Lincoln Peak Vineyard has most of its vineyard trained on Geneva double curtain (GDC) but also has some high wire. Kevin Bednar and his wife, Nichole Bambacigno, own Lincoln Peak and took over management of the vineyard earlier this year.

  “In these systems, the fruiting wire is six feet off the ground, and we encourage the shoots to grow downwards as the season progresses,” Bednar told The Grapevine Magazine. “These systems typically are spur-pruned and lay down cordons for multiple years, but we opt for cane pruning, replacing the canes on the fruiting wire every year. This allows us to eliminate potentially diseased or cold damaged wood.”

  Bednar shared that the systems they use now at Lincoln Peak allow vigorous hybrids plenty of room to grow, balancing the vegetative and reproductive growth. He explained that these varieties struggle to grow upright, so their trellis system fits their tendencies more than VSP and allows the vine to support a heavier crop load.

  “The downward growth pattern of the shoots leads to great sun and wind exposure in the fruit zone, leading to better ripeness and good development of fruiting buds,” Bednar said. “I certainly think VSP and other upright trellis systems are nicer to look at, and, having had more experience working with VSP, it seems to me that you have more control over undervine growth and fruit zone exposure throughout the season.”

  Bednar from Lincoln Peak explained that a vineyard needs to purchase end posts and anchors, row posts, wire, crossbars and a post hole digger to construct a trellis.

  “All trellising systems have the same number of posts, so it really comes down to wire and crossbars,” Bednar said. “The more wires, the more expensive the system. High wire is typically just one wire, GDC is two and VSP can be up to seven.”

Recommended Vineyard Trellis Products 

  One company specializing in vineyard trellis systems is Jensen Precast, based in Reno, Nevada and one of America’s largest, independently-owned precast concrete businesses. George Kehagias, Jensen’s director of product management, told The Grapevine Magazine that their most popular products for vineyards are the Harvest Pillar brand 3”x3”x8’ concrete line posts, 4”x4”x8’ concrete end posts, wire clips and end post bracketry.

  “Our wire clips are popular because they’re very quick to install,” Kehagias said. “We also offer a variety of easy-to-mount cross arm bracketry, depending on the type of trellising in the vineyard.”

  Kehagias explained that the method for trellising determines what supplies are required, but concrete posts require similar components to wood and steel.

  “The vineyard will need clips to attach the wire to the post, which Harvest Pillar supplies, and then wire to attach the fruit to,” Kehagias said. “In general, vineyards use anchors to secure the fruiting wire to the ground. With Harvest Pillar, the anchors and wire used are interchangeable between wood, steel and concrete. The wire clips used on concrete are similar in function but slightly different in form from clips used on wood and steel. Our customers also typically attached irrigation drip lines to the trellis. With concrete, this method can be done using the same accessories as used on wood and steel trellis.”

  He shared that concrete posts are the most cost-effective solution when you factor in the replacement costs of damaged posts and optimized spacing for strengths. Jensen Precast has a calculator on its website that compares wood, steel and concrete costs per acre.

  Headquartered in Aurora, Illinois, Gripple, Inc. is the leading manufacturer of wire joiners and tensioners for the agricultural market. Its highest-selling products in the vineyard market are the GP Medium, GP1 and GPak kits.

  “While the GP Medium is our best-seller, it is available in a range of sizes starting with small to medium, then large, and we even carry a jumbo option,” Rick Hermosillo, campaign marketing manager for Gripple, told The Grapevine Magazine. “The GP Medium is most often used for joining 13.5-to-10-gauge smooth trellis wire together, repairing broken or cut wires and often used at termination points around the end post. The medium is popular for its ease of use and speed of installation without drawbacks. It has an 880-pound working load and is designed with corrosive-resistant materials to last the life of the trellis wire.”

  Hermosillo explained that GP1 is another termination end option. It is designed with a flat edge, creating extra stability when using metal end posts. While the GP1 has a high load strength equivalent to the GP Medium, there is also a GP2 option for larger wire with a stronger hold at 1,320 pounds.

  “Lastly, our GPak kit — again, this comes in a range of sizes, but the most common is our GPak 3,” Hermosillo said. “It’s a ready-to-use kit with a pre-cut fused cable and a joiner. The GPak is designed as a quick installation tieback to connect your end post to your ground anchor.”

  Gripple manufactures 95 percent of the components in all its products and has released three new products to the vineyard market in the past two years. The GP90 is a cross-wire joiner, the D8 works with a 5/16-inch cable that provides a load rating of 6,170 pounds and the Anchor 5 is the largest anchor of its series to fit the most demanding trellis systems.

  Finger Lakes Trellis Supply is another company that can help if you’re in the market for a new trellis system. Based in Williamson, New York, it offers trellises, fencing, posts, wires, harvest supplies, irrigation supplies, tools, equipment and wildlife solutions.

  For vine training, Finger Lakes Trellis Supply offers a lightweight and durable MAX Tapener, four-inch KlipOn Trellis Ties and 1/4-inch stake-to-wire clips. These products provide a stable foundation for growing vines and help you save time while setting up trellises. This company also sells metal and wooden posts and accessories, plus earth anchors in various styles.

Final Words of Advice

  Hanlon from Four Daughters Vineyard & Winery advised vineyards, “Think about standing at that vine and pruning it, training it, working on it, driving down the row and harvesting the grapes. What tools you plan to use to do all of that? Choose something that is amiable to your tools and body. Bending down or reaching up to do a task for one vine is manageable, but can you do it for 1,000?”

  Bednar from Lincoln Peak advised, “Do your research and be realistic with yourself! There’s no right answer, so figure out what your short-term and long-term goals are. What’s your labor budget and access? How much mechanization do you want to do? What are your goals for fruit yield, quality and vine longevity?”

  Kehagias from Jensen Precast said, “When choosing a trellis system, one of the most important factors to be considered is the ever-increasing costs of labor resources and finding a system that, in the long run, will need minimal labor to maintain and utilize the system. We think our Harvest Pillar concrete trellis systems are the best solution.”

  Hermosillo from Gripple shared, “There are many reasons for choosing a preferred method; however, Gripple leaves it to the grower to determine which is best for their site. Gripple can improve on some of the cons to these methods are in the joining repairing and tiebacks of any design selected. One of those key benefits, besides the speed and ease of use, is the ability to tension and re-tension that wire year after year. We offer a torque tool that was engineered to complement our Gripple joiners. With this tool, it takes less than 10 seconds to add tension to a trellis line. Since most vineyards are built on many acres of land, this system can provide a significant benefit in time and labor savings.”

Practical Viticulture: Vine Shelter Types Provide Differences in a Vine’s Growing Environment

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Five vine shelter types currently being investigated by Texas A&M for their impact on vegetative growth and winter injury potential

Five vine shelter types currently being investigated by Texas A&M for their impact on vegetative growth and winter injury potential

By: Patrick O’ Brien, Ph.D and Michael Cook – Texas A&M AgriLife Extension Service

The first few seasons in the vineyard immediately following planting are key growth stages and can be especially challenging in terms of their management requirements, even for the most seasoned of viticulturists. As young vines are not well established, they are particularly susceptible to various forms of damage from both biotic and abiotic sources.

  Growers also assume a great financial risk and burden not only because, in most cases, it takes three to four years for vines to come into full production but even more importantly, as grapes are long lived perennial crops, mismanagement of a young vineyard can have negative implications that may persist for decades. A prudent grape grower will spend time to understand the inherent risks of their site and implement practices that will encourage healthy growth of both roots as well as shoots. One of the top threats to a young vine occurs when encroaching weeds compete with the vine for water and nutrient resources or rapidly grow tall enough so as to provide excessive shading, robbing the vine of vital sunlight. Additionally, left exposed to the open environment, young vines are at the mercy of excessive wind, intense solar radiation, and if using herbicides for vineyard floor management, potentially disastrous off-target herbicide damage. Moreover, to add insult to injury, vertebrate pests have no understanding or appreciation for the long-term goal of establishing a productive and healthy vineyard and are likely to view your leafy young wards only as an appetizing food source.

  It is for this reason that vine shelters are commonly used to provide protection during early vine growth stages. Sometimes referred to as grow tubes, these shelters are available commercially in a range of colors, sizes, configurations, and material types. The choice of ideal shelter features for your vineyard site is a decision probably best determined by which risks present the greatest priority. Taller shelters may provide additional protection to the elements or vertebrates but may also prove a hindrance for ease of vine access for monitoring and training purposes. Cost of vine shelter type also varies greatly, with those made of stronger material types like plastic coming at a greater premium than those made of weaker materials like waxed cardboard. What may work well for a shelter design in one growing region may not necessarily work well for all regions or vineyard management strategies. In areas where hail is common for example, weaker vine shelters may not provide the durability required to protect their housed vines for an entire growing season, much less the multiple seasons required for full establishment.

  Another factor to add to the decision-making process in vine shelter selection is that it is often recommended that shelters be placed on vines until sufficient periderm formation has occurred in order to reduce the risk of off-target herbicide injury, meaning that these shelters are utilized for the first two to four years of establishment. Some shelter types degrade rapidly, such as those made from cardboard, and may only last one growing season while others are much more resilient to the elements and thus their service life can be greatly extended.

  Because of the protection that they provide you might think that the use of vine shelters for your young vineyard is an obvious choice. It is certainly a popular strategy, particularly in new world wine growing regions where their use is nearly ubiquitous. This decision may warrant a little more consideration however, because although vine shelters are effective in providing protection against certain forms of damage, due to the nature of their application, they may actually make vines more prone to other forms of damage as well. Research conducted by the Texas A&M AgriLife Extension Service demonstrated that the environmental conditions provided by different vine shelters vary based on their inherent features. In a trial investigating 12 commercially available vine shelter types, differences were observed in temperature and sunlight infiltration rates within the shelters. Light transmittance (lux) ranged from 2% to 48% compared to ambient conditions. Annual mean temperature was elevated for 3 of the 12 shelter types, with a maximum increase of 3% and reduced for 3 shelter types when compared to ambient demonstrating certain vine shelters do retain more or less heat than others

Growing Degree Days chart

Figure 1

Figure 1: Growing degree days (GDD) were also calculated, with 6 shelters having up to 10% greater GDD accumulation compared to ambient and 2 with as much as 13% less accumulation Figure 2.

Annual Temp in Farenheit graph

  Figure 2

Previous research has also reported that the use of vine shelters may provide a warmer growing environment. Graham Due found that the use of polypropylene shelters at vineyards in South Australia led to an increase of 18°F over ambient temperature, while Hall and Mahaffee found that use of similar shelters on potted vines led to a maximum increase of 32°F! These findings have an important implication on vine development as air temperature may affect early vine growth. There is an optimum temperature range for vine growth, and the accumulation of growing degree days over the course of the growing season dictates total vine growth potential. Likewise, sunlight interception is an important growth factor. Based on this information, vine shelters could help to promote more rapid vegetative growth immediately following planting, desirable for getting young vines into a well-established state in preparation for training. Additionally, shelters help to guide the growth of shoots in a straight and vertical manner ideal for permanent trunk architecture and suppress the growth of lateral shoots meaning that vigor is not wasted on vegetative growth that is not constructive for training.

  The higher temperatures that have been observed in certain vine shelter types are the result of a greenhouse effect caused by the insulative properties of the shelters themselves. Although this may be a positive feature in terms of providing sustained warm temperatures for promoting vegetative growth, especially throughout the growing season in cooler climates, it also means that vines housed in those shelters may be at an increased risk of heat injury particularly during heat waves in cool climates or for the extended period of high temperatures experienced in hot climates.

  Another concern that can be easily overlooked is that the use of shelters could also increase cold injury potential during winter months or even encourage an earlier budbreak, making young vines more susceptible to spring frost events. This is because of the physiological sensitivity intrinsic to most grapevine species as it relates to dormancy. Grapevines enter dormancy rather slowly via acclimation beginning in the late summer to fall with dormancy peaking in mid-winter. They then begin to deacclimate, at a much more rapid rate, in late winter to early spring ultimately resulting in budbreak. Unfortunately, increased temperatures during these times can delay and/or disrupt acclimation as well as encourage premature deacclimation, making vines much more sensitive to cold injury.

  To make matters worse, for those vineyards located in areas that experience frequent and drastic temperature swings the risk for injury markedly increases. One strategy that growers may use to mitigate this risk is removing shelters entirely in the late fall, and then replacing them once growth begins in the spring. Of course, removing and replacing shelters can be problematic not only because it is labor intensive and may require purchase of additional tubes if using “one-time-use shelters”, costing the grower more time and money, but this practice has not been supported by scientific studies.

  Thus, in order to provide grape growers situated in environmentally high risk growing regions with the most up to date research-based recommendations on vine shelter use, a new project has been launched this year by the Texas A&M AgriLife Extension Service to further explore the impact of the insulative properties of 5 vine shelter types on vegetative growth rate, bud cold hardiness, and potential for summer and winter injury in the Texas High Plains. The shelter types under consideration for this trial were selected based on the results of our original trial as these shelters had the most significant insulative capacity out of the original 12 evaluated.

  While the original trial was conducted on empty vine shelters, the new trial is focused on shelters housing actual young vines, allowing for direct measurements of plant growth response to the unique growing conditions provided by each shelter type. Preliminary results from this new study indicate minor visible differences in the rate of phenological development between vines housed in different shelter types. For example, by assessing the rate of growth, at intervals of once a week after planting, using the Eichhorn-Lorenz model, vines housed in 30” corrugated plastic shelters achieved a more advanced stage of development than their 30” waxed cardboard counterparts on four out of the five dates of assessment.

  Over the next few growing seasons, we will continue to carry out this study and will provide results and recommendations to grape growers across the United States who are concerned about the potential for vine shelters to contribute to vine injury during the establishment of new vineyards and whether certain vine shelter types should be removed during fall to ensure vines acclimate to dormancy and deacclimate as best as possible.

How does Grape Crop Insurance Work

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man with handful of hail in a vineyard

By: Trevor Troyer – Agricultural Risk Management, LLC

Grape crop insurance is an Actual Production History (APH) policy. This means it uses a vineyard’s historical production to determine how much is covered. You are covering an average of your tons per variety. Since crop insurance is subsidized the insurable varieties, prices per ton, premiums, etc. are all set by the USDA. These are all set per county and state. This also means that there is no difference from one insurance company to the next. If anyone represents that they can get you a lower premium for the same coverage, it is false.

  You will need to set up individual databases for each variety. If you have vineyards in different locations, you can often times set up the same variety separately. This can be good when you have a claim. You might have a loss in one location but not the other. You don’t want your production co-mingled, as you may not have a payable loss at that point.

  The databases can go back up to 10 years, if you have the production. Minimally 4 years is needed to set up an APH database. If the vines have just become insurable then a Transitional Yield (T-Yield), based on the county and variety, can be used to fill in up to three years. If you purchase a vineyard that has been producing you can transfer that production history. You must have records or some way to prove that history though. The database can only be set up as far as you have production records to prove the yields. Production records are not required at the time you sign up for crop insurance or at production or acreage reporting times. But it can come up during a claim or a review.  So, it’s important to have records to prove your historical production.

  Here’s what the 2024 Crop Insurance Handbook says about grape production records:

  “Settlement sheets, sales receipts, machine harvest records, certified scale records, pick records and final or year-end statements from a winery, cannery or processor must indicate net paid tons of Grapes delivered by variety. Converting gallons of wine to tons of grapes does not qualify as acceptable records.”

  It is especially important to keep good records if the grower is “vertically integrated.”

  “A producer is vertically integrated when all stages of production of a crop, from acquisition of materials to the retailing or use of the final product, are controlled by one person, or by different persons that are related.”- Crop Insurance Handbook.

  If the entity that owns the vineyard is a winery, then they would be vertically integrated. Even if they sell some of their grapes to other wineries.

  Vines need to be in their 4th growing season for the grapes to be insurable. A minimum of 4 years is needed to do the average, if the grapes have just become insurable then a T-Yield, as mentioned before, is used in place of any missing years.  Usually, the third growing season after being grafted is considered insurable. The vines must have produced an average of at least two tons per acre in at least one of the three preceding crop years. There can be exceptions to this rule. Sometimes there are other requirements located in the “Special Provisions” for that particular county. In California the USDA Davis Regional Office (DRO) puts out Informational Memorandums that lay out specific requirements for the state of California. These differ from other growing regions in the US. You are able to make higher yield requests that can be approved by the USDA Davis Reginal Office.

  Grape crop insurance is available in the following states; Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Idaho, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Texas, Virginia and Washington. Crop insurance is not available for grapes in all counties in each of these states though. For a list of insurable counties, you can look at the RMA’s website at rma.usda.gov or contact your agent. Even though there may be differences between AVAs in a given county, the insurability, prices, premiums are set per county not AVA.

  Insurable varieties are also different between states and counties. The varieties are usually set by what has been being grown in that county or what a particular climate in a state/county allows for. Even if a particular variety is not listed it can be insured. There are Types/Practices for each county that list out specific varieties and also make allowance for others. For example, it may list Cabernet Sauvignon, Chenin Blanc, Gewurztraminer, Grenache, Cabernet Franc and so on. If a particular variety is not listed it can usually be insured under “Other Varieties”, “Other White Varieties” or “Other Red/Pink Varieties.”

  Having a lot of varieties that are not specifically listed causes these different varieties to be lumped together in the database. This can cause problems if you have varieties that yield differently. But this is still better than not having any coverage at all. Any coverage is better than no coverage as can be attested by many growers in California a couple years ago during the wildfires.

  It may happen that your production is low in particular year. You might have had a claim paid or not, but what about your database and average going down? This isn’t good for the overall average of your database.  You may elect an optional endorsement when you sign up called Yield Adjustment.

  “For APH yield calculation purposes, insureds may elect to substitute 60 percent of the applicable T-Yield for actual yields (does not apply to assigned and temporary yields) that are less than 60 percent of the applicable T-Yield to mitigate the effect of catastrophic year(s). Insureds may elect the APH YA and substitute 60 percent of the applicable T-Yield for low actual yields caused by drought, flood, or other natural disasters.” – 2024 Crop Insurance Handbook.

  This can make a big difference; you want your yields to stay up so that your average does. This makes it more likely to have a claim paid at the time of a loss. You cannot cover 100% of your average production. You can choose coverage levels from 50% to 85%. There is a built-in production deductible. Coverage levels are in 5% increments. Coverage levels are obviously relative to premium, the lower the coverage the lower the premium, themore coverage you buy the higher the premium. What the correct coverage for your needs is something your crop insurance agent can help you with. 

  Crop insurance is subsidized through the Federal Government. The USDA Risk Management Agency oversees crop insurance. The RMA’s website is www.rma.usda.gov

Grapevine Leafroll & Red Blotch Virus Disease Management and Control

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picture of vineyards with leafroll and red blotch disease

By:  Judit Monis, Ph.D. – Vineyard and Plant Health Consultant

The symptoms of virus infection become more pronounced in the vineyards in the late summer and fall season.  Specially leafroll and red blotch, the most important viral diseases that manifest in red-fruited grape varieties.  Often, it is difficult to distinguish leafroll from red blotch disease symptoms in the vineyard.  In this article I will summarize and update information on the biology, symptoms, transmission, and management of the viruses responsible for these important diseases.  

The Viruses Associated with Leafroll and Red blotch Diseases

  There are four different viral species associated with grapevine leafroll disease.   The viruses belong to the Closteroviridae family and are Grapevine leafroll virus -3, and Grapevine leafroll associated virus -1 , -2, and -4 (GLRaV-1, -2, -4).  Except for Grapevine fanleaf, Grapevine leafroll -3 and red blotch, Koch’s postulates have not been completed with most of the disease-causing grapevine viruses.   The postulates state (in the case of a virus) that the virus must be isolated in pure form from a diseased plant, later the isolated virus must be introduced to a healthy plant. 

  After a period, the newly infected plant must show the same symptoms as the original infected plant.  Clearly Koch’s postulates are important because they prove the cause and effect of a virus (or any pathogen) causing disease.  It has been difficult to demonstrate Koch’s postulates, with grapevine-infecting viruses.

  There are many reasons for this.  Mainly, there are not many alternative hosts that are susceptible to most grapevine infecting viruses.  But most importantly, grapevine viruses are not mechanically transmitted onto grapevines.  These viruses need to be introduced to a vine by an insect vector or via grafting (graft-transmission).   Dr. Marc Fuchs team at Cornell University was able to demonstrate that GRBV genetic material is responsible for red blotch foliar symptoms in red fruited grapevine varieties.  While Baozhong Meng and team at  the University of Guelph in  Canada) completed the Koch’s postulates for GLRaV-3, consequently naming the virus GLRV-3. Both projects involved the use of sophisticated recombinant DNA technology to introduce the virus genetic material into tissue cultured grapevine plants.  

  In our modern days, we have accepted the use of infectious clones (a recombinant copy of a virus) to prove that a virus causes a specific disease.  This would allow the dropping of the the word “associated” from the viral name.   Within the Closteroviridae family, species of leafroll viruses are classified in three genera, Ampelovirus, Closterovirus, and Velarivirus. Grapevine leafroll associated virus -1, GLRV-3, and GLRaV-4 belong to the Ampelovirus genus.  Grapevine leafroll associated virus -2 is a Closterovirus and GLRaV-7 is a member of the Velarivirus genus. 

  Some researchers claim that GLRaV-7 should not be considered a leafroll virus.   Recent research has shown that GLRaV-7 was isolated from a mixed leafroll infected vine and symptoms may have been due to the other leafroll virus present in the vine.  When found in single infections, GLRaV-7 does not appear to show typical leafroll symptoms.

  Grapevine red blotch virus (GRBV) is the second DNA virus species discovered in grapevines (its genetic material is DNA rather than RNA).  Both its molecular and structural characterization has placed GRBV in a new genus (Grablovirus) within the Geminiviridae family.  

Leafroll and Red Blotch Symptoms can be Confused

  Vines infected with leafroll viruses produce smaller grape clusters that ripen unevenly with lower sugar content. Foliar symptoms include downward rolling, reddening, or yellowing of leaves depending on the grapevine variety. Other foliar colors associated with leafroll virus infection include different hues of red, purple, and orange. The leaf veins may remain green or take many other colors (purple, red, yellow, etc.).    Grapevine red blotch virus infection also displays leaf discoloration which usually appear spotty or blotchy.   

  However, these symptoms generally are indistinguishable from leafroll, especially when rolling of leaves are absent in leafroll-infected vines.  In red fruited varieties, GRBV infected vines can display red veins, but red veins have also been observed in non-infected vines, and many red-blotch infected vines do not display red veins.   In my opinion, red vein symptoms cannot be used as a diagnostic tool.   In white-fruited varieties red blotch disease displays yellow blotchy discoloration in leaves. While the symptoms of leafroll and red blotch can be confused, these diseases are caused by different viruses.

  Further, visual diagnostics is complicated by the fact that grapevines often carry mixed infections of viruses and other pathogens.  Although, the change in colors of the leaves in the fall is a tale-tell of virus infection, the most important negative effect of both leafroll and red blotch virus infection is the reduction of sugar in fruit resulting in lower Brix values and delayed fruit maturity.

  Some leafroll viruses and/or their strains are more aggressive than others.  Researchers have described the Alfie (Australia and New Zealand), BD (Italy), and Red Globe (U.S.A) strains of GLRaV-2. These strains are molecularly similar and have been associated with graft incompatibility, vine decline, and death.  Some researchers report that GLRaV-1 and GLRV-3 induce more severe symptoms than GLRaV-4.  However, symptoms vary depending on the grape variety, rootstock, and climatic conditions.  Two different genetic groups (clades) of GRBV have been reported but no differences in their biology or effect on symptoms in vineyards have been described.  Just as seen with leafroll, the symptom expression of GRBV infected vines is affected by climatic conditions and the author has noted differences in the effect on sugar reduction in sunnier and warmer areas (i.e., California coastal areas with more fog and lower sunshine yield fruit with lower sugar concentration than the same grape clones grown inland with more sun/heat exposure).

Transmission and Spread of Leafroll and Red Blotch Viruses

  Ampeloviruses are known to be transmitted by mealybugs and soft scale insects in a non-specific manner.  This means, different mealybug and soft scale insect species can transmit any leafroll virus in the Ampelovirus genus.  Research has shown that the citrus (Planococcus citri), grape (Pseudococcus maritimus), long-tailed (Pseudococcus longispinus), obscure (Pseudococcus viburni) and vine (Planococcus ficus) mealybugs as well as the soft scale insects Pulvinaria vitis and Ceroplastes rusci are able to transmit leafroll viruses. Mealybugs and soft scale insects feed on the vine’s sap by inserting their sucking mouthparts into the plant’s vascular system (phloem). The honeydew excreted during the feeding process attracts ants that nurse and aid mealybugs to be transported to different positions of the vine or a different vine in the row.  Mealybugs may be difficult to observe as they may hide beneath the bark.  However, the presence of sooty mold (a fungus) and ant activity can be a good indication that mealybug are present in the vineyard.  No Insect vectors able to transmit Leafroll virus-2 or GLRaV -7 have not been found to date and are propagated  by humans who produce, graft, and distribute cuttings from infected vines (also those viruses that have vectors are mainly propagated this way!).  

  Work by researchers at Cornell University and the University of California reported that the three-cornered alfalfa hopper (Spissistilus festinus) can transmit the GRBV in greenhouse and laboratory conditions.  It is interesting that grapevine is not the preferred host for Spissistilus festinus that prefers to feed on legumes, grasses, and shrubs.  Furthermore, the insect is not able to complete its reproductive cycle in grapevines.  Because the virus is spreading in areas where the three-cornered alfalfa hopper is not present, research is in progress to determine if other insects are capable of transmitting the red blotch virus.  

  Recently, it was shown that Tortistilus albidoparsus (another tree hopper) is a vector capable of transmitting GRBV.  Clearly, even with the availability of insect vectors, it is clear that the rapid expansion of this virus in vineyards  in USA and other countries was due to propagation and grafting of cuttings from infected vines.  This also explains the arrival of GRBV to many countries in Asia, Europe, and South America where GRBV had not been previously reported.   In summary, both, leafroll and red blotch viruses are graft transmissible and predominantly propagated by producing cuttings of infected rootstock and scion material. 

Virus Diagnosis and Disease Management

  The distribution and concentration of leafroll and red blotch viruses is different in infected plant material.  While leafroll detection appears to be seasonal (best detected late in the growing season), detection of red blotch virus can be performed any time of the year.   Further, work performed in my lab showed that red blotch virus can be detected in high titers in any part of the vine.  The work showed that red blotch virus can be detected in any tissue tested, new or mature leaves, petioles, green or lignified canes, as well as cordons and trunks.  In contrast, leafroll viruses are generally found in low concentrations and are best detected in mature leaves, canes, cordon, and trunk.  If a vine has been infected through cuttings, the older the plant material is, the easier it is to detect leafroll. 

  Presently other field “detection” methods are being developed.  I am personally involved in a project working with a multidisciplinary team with the aim of training canines to detect leafroll and red blotch virus in infected vines. Various research groups in USA and abroad are using RBG (red, blue, green) and  hyperspectral photography combined with machine learning to detect GLRV-3 and GRBV in vineyards to facilitate the mapping and rogueing of infected vines.

  Keeping both leafroll and red blotch viruses out of the productive vineyards relies on clean planting stock programs.  Because both viruses are graft transmitted and have biological vectors it is important to implement a monitoring and sampling program at the nursery and production vineyards.  Vines that are symptomatic or that test positive must be removed from the vineyard to avoid spread (especially if one of the Ampeloviruses or GRBV are detected and the vector is present in the vineyard).  Depending on the disease incidence (I have developed a statistical sampling formula to calculate and help make decisions), the removal of a few vines or the whole vineyard is recommended.

  Different chemical and biological control strategies are available for the control of mealybugs that transmit leafroll viruses.  The use of chemical control, although might be used to control GRBV vector is not presently recommended. However, the choice of cover crops that are less appealing to insect vector’s diets can help minimize their presence in the vineyards.  

Conclusions

  Judit is involved in applied research with the goal to determine the ideal process to protect clean planting grapevine stock and newly planted vineyards from infection of viruses and fungal pathogens.  Presently, information on what is the distance needed at the foundation and nursery blocks to avoid infection from diseased blocks is lacking. The results of the research will be able to adopt the best strategy to isolate and monitor clean planting stock.  Until we have this information my recommendation is that nurseries and growers determine the health status of grapevine stock prior to planting to avoid the propagation and/or introduction diseased vines to the vineyard.  Yet, it is imperative to isolate and monitor newly planted vineyards to avoid the introduction of disease via insect vectors.  It is important to remember that lack of symptoms does not always correlate with a healthy diagnostic result (rootstock varieties as well as non-grafted vines are usually asymptomatic), so it is best to test a statistical sample of the nursery propagated material to be sure of its health status.

  Judit Monis, Ph.D. provides specialized services to help growers, vineyard managers, and nursery personnel avoid the propagation and transmission of disease caused by bacteria, fungi, and viruses in the vineyard.   Judit (based in California) is fluent in Spanish and is available to consult in all wine grape growing regions of the word.  Please visit juditmonis.com for information or contact juditmonis@yahoo.com to request a consulting session at your vineyard.

The Contract Packaging Agreement

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By: Brad Berkman and Louis Terminello, Greenspoon Marder

A few times on these pages, we’ve written about contracts of various types to assist brand owners in proper planning for brand manufacture, introduction and distribution. In this article, we’ll take something of a deeper dive into production agreements in a contract package or custom crush arrangement.

  First, building a winery, and perhaps developing a vineyard, is an extraordinarily time-consuming and expensive process. Returns on investment may take many years to see back. In addition, winemaking (as well as brewing and distilling), is a manufacturing process that requires great deals of expertise, technological know-how and a deep appreciation for the art form. Taking a brand to market and getting placed on wine lists and by-the-glass programs require a very different set of skills. Enter: the brand owner and the contract package relationship.

  It’s worth noting that brand owner, though a common term in the industry, is also a term of art in the beverage law. Since the writers of this article are striking their keyboards in Florida, we’ll refer to Florida Beverage Law for quick analysis.

  561.42 FL. Stat. makes the first reference to “brand owner” in the Florida Beverage Law. The statute is Florida’s tied-house evil statute prohibiting direct and/or indirect interests between upper-tier industry members and retailers. Brand owners are lumped in and treated similarly to manufacturers, distributors, importers, primary American sources of supply, registrants, and/or any broker or sales agent or salesperson. By this definition, brand owners, absent the presence of a statutory exception, are treated as upper-tier industry members and subject to tied-house laws and restrictions. This is generally true in all states.

  Brand owners, when appropriately licensed, are permitted to enter into contract packaging agreements with manufacturers. Both are upper-tier industry members and certain tied-house restrictions are inapplicable. Prior to finalizing the production agreement, a federal wholesalers permit is required, as issued by the Alcohol Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB), and in many instances, state permits are required as well. The reader should keep in mind that an alternative licensing paradigm exists called an “Alternating Proprietorship” arrangement where the brand owner, via a different licensing scheme, acts as a tenant of the winery and produces its own product on the winery’s premises. This article will focus on the former arrangement.

  Negotiating and finalizing the terms of a production agreement can be a daunting task. The brand owner and manufacturer share a common goal, but agreeing on the terms which will lead to the goal of a final product could be challenging generally because of the bargaining positions and goals of the parties.

  What follows is a look at some of the essential terms of a contract package or custom crush agreement that both parties to the contract should consider carefully. By no means is this an exhaustive list, and competent alcohol beverage contract attorneys should be retained to assist.

•             Quantities and Pricing:  Total quantities produced under the agreement require careful consideration, and for the brand owner in particular. There must be a meeting of the minds on production levels prior to focusing on other areas. Brand owners should be careful not to enter into agreements where production quantities and commensurate pricing/costs are higher than anticipated sales over the same time period. Managing brand building resources against production costs is essential. Phrased another way, brand owners should carefully manage their production dollars to ensure the required monies are available for marketing and sales spends.

                  On the flip side, manufacturers must consider the volume expectations of the brand owner. They must consider whether they can meet the production requirements of the brand owner. In the alternative, they must carefully consider allocating valuable production time to brand owners whose volume requirements are too low, which ultimately cuts into revenue potential.

•             The Juice:  Manufacturing services need to be clearly stated. The parties need to determine whether the winery will actually be producing and supplying the wine to be used or if it will be outsourced from a different winery and bottled at the contract packer’s premises. Quality specifications need to be determined and assurances need to be made that the end product will comply with quality standards established by the parties. By extension, provisions should be included for how to deal with a finished product that does not comply with agreed upon quality standards.

•             Raw Goods and Production Material:  Any ingredient specifications, if required, should be determined, agreed to, and set forth in the agreement. As with the above, finished product assurances (as to quality) should be included, as well as methods for dealing with materials not in compliance with quality standards.

                  The same should be considered with production materials. Bottles, caps, labels, cases and other constituent parts must be considered. Central issues such as how these items will be procured, that is whether the winery will procure these items and build their costs into the finished product or whether the brand owner should source them out and supply these items as required. Quality assurances need to be addressed as well, and in particular, how to manage materials that do not comport with quality standards.

                  Another seemingly innocuous issue is storage fees associated with the storing of raw goods and production materials at the packager’s location. Associated costs for storage services should be memorialized in the agreement. Hidden or undetermined fees may add up quickly, causing revenue issues for the brand owner and could potentially lead to disputes among the contracting parties.

•             Exclusivity and Production and Supply Goals:

                  Serious consideration must be brought to the issue of exclusivity by both parties. Brand owners need to determine early on whether a potential contract packager has the ability to supply all the requirements of the brand owner. Conversely, the packager must also make honest inquiries as to its ability to produce and pack according to the brand owners’ requirements. Generally, the preferred approach is the middle ground.  That is to say, a reasonable production number based on the brand owners’ requirements and the contract packer’s ability to produce should be agreed upon and memorialized in the contract packaging agreement. Under this scenario, both parties have a reasonable expectation as to their respective performance requirements under the agreement and an understanding of the benefits incurred. The issue of exclusivity could become moot, if the production and supply numbers are agreeable to both parties.

•             Production Forecasting and Scheduling:  Another area for the parties to agree upon prior to execution of the agreement, is anticipating production needs over time to ensure that the packer can produce according to a set schedule and the brand owner can rely on goods being ready according to their sales and marketing needs. Anticipated variances and procedures for adjusting product forecasts and scheduling should be memorialized as well.

•             Recall:  A system and procedures for recall should be established and memorialized as well, with allocation of costs based upon the reasons for recall. Recalls may occur for myriads of reasons, and when addressing this issue parties to an agreement should devise a method for determining the cause that led to recall. It should be clear that determining cause guides the parties in allocating costs for the same.

  Contract packaging agreements can be complicated agreements to negotiate and draft, requiring many more provisions than those stated above. Ultimately, agreeing on terms that satisfy the operational requirements of both parties is ideally supported by the legal protections required by both parties. As a word of warning, take care in proceeding forward with these types of agreements. Having experienced legal counsel involved is the most prudent course of action.

Fog Crest Vineyard: Breaking Barriers While Leaving a Legacy  

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man and woman on deck holding wine glasses overlooking vineyard

By: Gerald Dlubala

In 1996, Rosalind Manoogian and her husband, James, decided to purchase an apple orchard that had been neglected and in disrepair. The orchard was beyond its usefulness, and the choice was to clear it out and replace it with a vineyard that one day might sustain itself through grape and wine production. That initial vision has been realized in a big way for Rosalind Manoogian, president and current majority owner of Fog Crest Vineyards. Manoogian is the first Black female owner and operator of a winery in Sonoma County, California, producing world-renowned, ultra-premium, chardonnay, pinot noir and pinot rosé wines.

  “Prior to us moving here, the land was known for its apples. Before that, it was hops,” said Manoogian. “Grapes were just becoming the hot market when we moved here, so as the property manager, we wanted to do the right thing and follow the market, so growing grapes was a no-brainer. And let’s face it, growing grapes and making wine is sexier than the other options. Since the orchard was past its usefulness, so we spent the first year clearing, cultivating and getting the land ready for grapes. Next, we put in rootstock, then over time, we put in the vineyard, which was 10 acres evenly split between chardonnay and pinot noir vines.”

  Fog Crest Vineyard was founded the following year, in 1997. Located in the Russian River Valley of Sonoma County, California, Manoogian chose the Fog Crest name to pay homage to the dense fog that blankets the valley. The location and terroir of the vineyard is optimal for grape growing. Its rolling hills with a south/east exposure and sandstone-based soil offer excellent drainage and full morning sun. Combined with the cool morning fog that promotes slow ripening, The property had all the essentials for producing premium grapes.

Old-World Tradition Meets Modern Technology

  Fog Crest Vineyard celebrated its first vintage in 2005. Manoogian said that while the Russian River Valley’s soils have become recognized as some of the world’s best for cultivating extraordinary chardonnay and pinot noir grapes, they complement that with a combination of old-world traditions, meticulous viticultural practices and modern technology.

  “We use the most modern grape-growing techniques available while staying true to tradition in what we produce,” said Manoogian. “If you try our chardonnay, you get a definite sense of the wine’s traditional nature and structure. We aren’t trying to think outside the box. Our goal always has been and continues to be producing the best ultra-premium chardonnay and pinot noir wines available.”

  Fog Crest Vineyard’s chardonnays and pinot noirs are hand-harvested in the early mornings to keep the fruit cool. They are meticulously tended to during fermentation and bottled unfiltered after months of intentional care. The winery garnered immediate praise in its early stages. Its grapes were used by renowned winemakers and also bottled under the L’Ancien Verger Vineyard label.

Learning the Business with Help from Mentors

  Manoogian admits that she initially had no idea what she was getting into or what she should do to get started. Starting as a wife in a supporting role, she became thoroughly involved and in charge of the sales aspect by 2009. She went back and educated herself about all aspects of the wine business and the art of selling. Manoogian spent three to four years traveling around the U.S. and Canada selling wine and laughed while recalling some of her adventures while learning about and performing the various roles of the vineyard production employees.

  “I was always trying to learn,” said Manoogian. “Along the way, I’ve had, and still have, so many helpful mentors who themselves came from all different backgrounds. That was important and very reassuring as I came from a different background with no agriculture or hospitality experience. Some were mentors from the beginning; others became mentors along the way. There were people who were very kind to me, and that kindness allowed me to learn all aspects of the business, from the farm through production to the table. It was an amazing and fun process, but it was also extremely arduous. I took every opportunity to learn nearly every job within the winery, including picking grapes. And I can tell you that I have nothing but mad respect for our employees because that’s a job that I do not look forward to doing again. Honestly, I’m sure that most days, they were ready for me to get out of their way and stop holding them back. But now I know and understand how all of that works, and I’m good with it.”

A Winery Is a Business of Continuously Moving Pieces

  “It’s all part of the process to be able to learn and grow, and for us, I think the last three years have brought about a happy medium of being in business,” said Manoogian. “The tasting room was a big deal for us and me personally. We opened it in 2014, and that meant that people would now travel to come into my space. Not only did they come, but they would also mention that, yes, they knew and recognized our brand and loved it. It was so exciting to hear that, and it made a huge difference in how I viewed owning not only our space, but now also owning a place for others to visit. We grew from that moment.”

  “Over the past years, the wildfires that affected our tourism and the pandemic have made it very challenging for us,” Manoogian continued. “We had to recommit again and figure out how to occupy this place in the way that I wanted to, including our tasting room. I had to figure out a marketing plan on so many different levels, whether it’s social media, print, or being involved in television ads for county tourism. All these pieces go together, and without utilizing all of them, I don’t feel that you’re going to be successful in today’s market. You have to understand that this is what is required right now. No one tells you that at the beginning. I’m at a place where I can tell people that now, but even as recently as two years ago, I wouldn’t have been able to explain that to anyone. It’s not like this type of information is readily available, and frankly, it changes daily. There are a lot of grapes and tasting rooms out there, so you have to figure out how to constantly improve and up your game, no matter what size vineyard or winery you have. You’ve got to make that happen.”

Being Authentic Is Always the Right Thing to Do

  “I have to be who I am,” said Manoogian. “I’m always going to focus on the things that brought us into the business and what we care about. So, if I do that, I feel like I’ve met my mission. I’m not going to be able to meet everyone’s goals and desires, but if I focus on those things, I feel like I’m reaching and occupying the space where I want to be.”

  “For us, that means we honor the great history and high expectations of the Russian River Valley wineries by making ultra-premium chardonnay, pinot noir and rosé pinot noir,” she elaborated. “Some of the best pinots come out of the Russian River Valley American Viticultural Area (AVA) of Sonoma County, and we are honored to be a part of that group and its history. This space is so unique that although it gets credit from those who know, I still feel like it doesn’t get the credit it should. For the rest, it’s just a conversation about whether you like my wine, and that has to be enough for me right now. It’s about finding and defining what you do best and then doing that to the best of your abilities.”

Working for Legacy

  Fog Crest Vineyards is the only female Black-owned winery in Sonoma County. Manoogian is currently the majority owner and president of Fog Crest Vineyards. However, that will change by the end of this year, when she will take over 100 percent ownership of the vineyard and become president/CEO of the entire corporation. And it doesn’t end there. She has another brand that she expects to be released later this year as well.

  “I also own my land,” said Manoogian. “That’s pretty much unheard of here. We were lucky enough to get here at a time when we could buy the land. But I love this project, and I have grown throughout. Through it all, I am ultimately working for my legacy. I have two daughters and two granddaughters, and I want to build something they can look at and be proud of. I want them to understand why we put in so much effort to reach this point. I do this work right now not because I want to but because I have to.”

  Fog Crest Vineyard has won numerous awards in the gold and silver categories. It is located on a picturesque 30-acre plot in the Russian River Valley in Sonoma County. The vineyard is celebrated for its signature wines, including pinot noirs, chardonnays and a unique pinot noir rosé. All visits require a reservation.

  To contact or learn more about Fog Crest Vineyards and their ultra-premium wines or Rosalind Manoogian’s story of breaking barriers and setting new standards in the winemaking industry, head over to:

Fog Crest Vineyard

7606 Occidental Road,

Sebastopol, CA 95472

(707) 829-2006

info@fogcrestvineyard.com

www.fogcrestvineyard.com

Exploring the Varieties of Oregon’s Pinot Noir Wines

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six different bottles of Oregon pinot noir wines
You can almost afford to buy these six Oregon pinot noirs by the pallet.

By: Becky Garrison

In 1961, Richard Sommer planted pinot noir vines along with other varieties at the HillCrest Vineyard in Roseburg in Southern Oregon, thus establishing HillCrest as the state’s oldest currently operating estate winery and vineyard. UC Davis graduate David Lett followed suit four years later by planting both pinot noir and pinot gris at The Eyrie Vineyards in McMinnville, situated in the heart of Oregon’s Willamette Valley.

  Since then, pinot noir grapes have emerged as the dominant wine grape grown in Oregon. According to the Institute for Policy Research and Development at the University of Oregon’s 2022 Oregon Vineyard & Winery Report, 26,648 acres of pinot noir grapes were planted out of a total of 44,487 acres. From these plantings, the Willamette Valley produced 61,928 tons of pinot noir fruit, with the Rogue and Umpqua Valleys producing 14,490 tons. (The Oregon Wine Board underwrote and managed this report on behalf of all Oregon wineries.)

  Terry Brandborg of Brandborg Vineyard & Winery (Elkton, Oregon) offers a succinct summary of this elegant grape that originated in the Burgundy region in France:

  “Pinot noir has everything you could want in the glass — great red fruits, ripe cherries and raspberries with red plums. The color is typically not dark red, but in the mouth, it always surprises with its full body, flavors and textures. One writer once described our pinot noir as “elegant and seductive with a feminine grace.” It is a great accompaniment to a great variety of foods, including cheeses, grilled salmon, lighter meats and savory brined pork”. 

The Growth of Oregon’s Pinot Noir Wines

  As Karen McNeil reported in The Wine Bible (Workman Publishing, 2022, 3rd Edition), one of the key drivers behind the vast improvement in Oregon wine in the 2000s was the widespread implementation of so-called Dijon clones. “Named after Dijon, the city in Burgundy where France’s ONIVINS plant materials laboratory is located, the numerous Dijon clones (with exciting names like 115, 667 and 777) are heralded for their complex flavors and ability to ripen fully in cool climates. In addition to Dijon clones, Willamette Valley pinot noirs are also often made from the Pommard clone, another well-suited clone from Burgundy.” Other clone varieties planted in Oregon include Wadenswil and Mariafeld.

Blending Pinot Noir Clones

  The specific clones tend not to be listed on a bottle of pinot noir, though one’s skill as a winemaker can be seen based on the selection and blend of the specific clones used in a given release. On their website, WSET (Wine & Spirits Education Trust) states that the world’s greatest winemakers relish the opportunity to blend wines from different grape varieties, vineyard parcels, and barrels each year. “Masterful blending is an art form comparable to a Michelin star chef creating the perfect dish or an elite conductor crafting an exquisite symphony. It lies at the heart of the world’s greatest wines, from Bordeaux and Champagne to Rioja and Super Tuscans.”

  As a means of educating consumers about the blending process for pinot noir wines, Willamette Valley Estate Vineyard in Turner, Oregon decided to give consumers a very hands-on tangible blending experience through their blending machine that shows them how different wine profiles can be. The unique system was invented for Willamette Wineworks in Folsom, California, and modified by Willamette’s Research & Development Manager David Markel. It was a hit at their Folsom location, so they adapted the fun to their Salem Hills and Vancouver Waterfront locations. In their estimation, “Blending adds texture and complexity to wine and allows winemakers to balance wines with body and acid, a hallmark of Oregon wines. Blending can help to maintain consistency so wine enthusiasts can rely on flavor profiles from their favorite wine producers.”

picture of vineyards with setting sunlit sky

Willamette Valley Pinot Noirs

  Initially, skeptics dismissed Lett’s initial planting of pinot noir grapes. The prevailing wisdom at this time viewed this region as unsuitable for growing this particular varietal.

  According to a much-touted popular myth, the Willamette Valley emerged as a premier location for producing pinot noir grapes because it sits on the same latitude as Burgundy, replete with a similar cool climate. Mallory Smith, co-founder of Sunday School Wine, debunks this myth by pointing out that the Northern Rhône is the region in France that sits at a similar latitude to the Willamette Valley, not Burgundy. Hence, it’s not the latitude but the combination of the climate, the soil and the dedicated winemakers that combine to produce world-class Willamette Valley pinot noir wines. Smith opines, “Why do we still feel the need to rely on a Burgundy story (and an untrue one at that) to validate our wines? Let Oregon be Oregon!”

  This region, which stretches from north of Portland to just south of Eugene, is protected from the extreme heat via the Cascade Range to the east (and cooled by the Van Duzer winds through the corridor straight off the ocean) and the Coast Range Mountains on the east producing rainstorms with cooling breezes emanating from the Pacific Ocean. Overall, the region experiences a long and gentle growing season due to warm summers that cool down in the evening, followed by relatively mild winters and long springs. Also, most of the rains tend to fall when these vines are dormant. This slow ripening coupled is key for producing top-notch ripe and fruity pinot noir grapes. As evidence of this area’s commitment to sustainability practices, the Willamette Valley is home to the largest concentration of B Corp Certified wineries than any other region in the world.

picture of vineyards with mountain in the background

  Since the formation of the Willamette Valley AVA in 1984, this region has grown to encompass 1,116 wineries and 1,476 vineyards, with a total planted area of 27,202 acres out of a total area of 3,438,00. To acknowledge the unique characteristics of smaller regions within the Willamette Valley AVA, six nested AVAs were formed in 2002, and the 11th nested AVA was established in 2022. Pinot noir grapes dominate the vineyards, accounting for 70 percent of all grapes grown in the WV, followed by pinot gris (16 percent) and chardonnay (7.5 percent).

  Joe Wright, winemaker for Left Coast Cellars (Rickreall, Oregon) has done 28 vintages working with fruit from both the Willamette Valley and Southern Oregon. He produced his first vintage for Willamette Valley Vineyards in 1996 before starting his winery, Belle Vallé, and transitioning to Left Coast in 2011. While the Willamette Valley produces some of the most complex and interesting wines, Wright adds that this region also presents endless challenges in the vineyard. “Winegrowers sit at the edge of our seat every week and month of the growing season anticipating the rise and fall of each vintage, ultimately embracing what’s been given to us…it’s not for the faint of heart.”

  Wright has observed how, in the past ten years, temperatures over 90°F have increased exponentially from, on average, 12 to 20 days per growing season to 20 to 35 commonly taking place now. Also, days of over 100°F were zero to one over the growing season but are now commonly two to five days on average, occurring later into the season. In addition, precipitation has seemingly lessened in the spring and fall on average. Wright can see how these factors take a toll on fruit set and fruitfulness, fruit integrity and disease resistance.

  Aaron Lieberman, Winemaker for Iris Vineyards (Cottage Grove, Oregon), has also made wine with fruit from many of the AVAs in Oregon. Beyond the normal challenges inherent to growing pinot noir, Iris Vineyards Estate is a cool site that can be susceptible to frost damage in the spring. The estate vineyard is located in the coastal mountain foothills at about 1,000 feet elevation.

  Following the 2020 vintage, the price per ton of Willamette Valley pinot noir grapes increased substantially. Iris Vineyards saw an opening in the market for a Rogue Valley pinot noir that could retail between $22 to $24 and still be profitable. General manager David Cordtz looked to source fruit from some of the finest Vineyards in the Rogue Valley. This venture allowed them to grow their overall production sustainably by sourcing fruit. “We have been sourcing fruit from all over Oregon for years.   We sourced pinot noir from Rogue Valley so we could produce a different style of pinot noir, something between Willamette Valley and California, at a price point to fulfill a wholesale opportunity both in Oregon and in many of the 20 states we offer Iris Vineyards wines,” commented Cordtz.

  “These grapes are unique to us for their warm climate provenance. The pinot noir produced from Rogue Valley is a little fuller bodied than most of our Willamette sourced wines and has a bolder flavor profile,” Lieberman observed.

Southern Oregon Pinot Noirs

  Established in 2005, the Southern Oregon AVA may be known for growing warmer-weather grapes, though certain locations within the Rouge Valley and Umpqua Valley sub-AVAS have ideal microclimates for growing pinot noir and other cool-weather grapes.

  For example, Stephanie Pao, winemaker for Foris Vineyards (Cave Junction, Oregon), found their location on the west side of the Rogue Valley AVA at 1400 feet elevation affords them a long, warm growing season that is ideal for early ripening varieties like pinot noir. The specific sites where their grapes are planted are in well-draining alluvial soils that are primarily gravelly or rocky, which restricts growth and tends to produce wines with greater intensity and character. Depending on the timing of phenological events, the wines tend to be fruit-forward (black or red, depending on the vintage) with lower natural acidity than the northern part of the state.

  Rob Ikola of Whitetail Ridge Vineyard (Roseburg, Oregon) and Chris Hudson, Umpqua Valley Association President and owner of Lexème Wines (Elkton, Oregon), observe how the Umpqua Valley AVA enjoys enough heat degree days to fully ripen yet achieve long hang time to develop complex wines such as pinot noir. This AVA has a long frost-free growing season with light rains, a large selection of soils, and valleys with a variety of growing conditions. Small, unique microclimates (called the 100 valleys of the Umpqua) create very diverse and unique differences even though the same varietal is grown within a few miles of each other.

  According to Brandborg, pinot noir grapes and other cool varieties thrive in the northern area around the town of Elkton due to the cool, marine-influenced climate. His vineyard receives around fifty inches of annual rainfall, making irrigation unnecessary. Also, the central area to the northwest of Roseburg has a transitional intermediate climate where both cool and warm varieties do quite well.

  In Brandborg’s view, site selection is very important. “Pinot noir is a thin-skinned variety and requires attention in the vineyard, with fungicide spraying as needed to avoid problems. If all of these factors work out together in harmony, world-class wine can be produced,” he reflects.

  Scott Kelley, co-owner/winemaker of Paul O’Brien Winery (Roseburg, Oregon), notes how pinot noir in the Umpqua Valley is a spectacular representation of the best of Oregon. “The balance of power and elegance we showcase in Umpqua Valley pinot noir is rarely seen in other regions. There are so many great vineyard sites yet to be planted,” he observes.

The Rise of Pinot Noir Rosé

  In recent years, pinot noir rosé wines from Oregon have risen in popularity. These wines offer a cool, crisp taste with a refreshing, clean finish that stands out from the sweeter rosé wines on the commercial market. As an example of the range of wine styles that can be made from pinot noir grapes, Brandborg produces a white pinot noir, red, rosé of pinot noir, a methode Champenoise pinot noir and a port-style dessert pinot noir. “People are on a path of discovery about all pinot noir can be and bring,” Brandborg opines.

Family Frenzy in Wine Country

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The Case for Kids and Canines

two small dogs riding in car and out the car window is a very large wine bottle and barrels

 By: Susan DeMatei and Nathan Chambers

Let’s kick things off with a dose of reality. We’ve all been there: it’s a bustling Saturday morning in July, you’re bracing for a packed day at the Tasting Room, and Murphy’s Law is in full effect. Two of your staff are out sick; another is off serving the crowd at an art and wine festival downtown. You unlock the door at 10:01 AM, only to be greeted by a frazzled family of five: mom, dad, and three rambunctious kiddos. The younger two are reenacting a wild-west shootout with gravel as ammo, while the third is glued to an iPad, deep in the latest YouTube Kids saga. Mom and Dad look like they’ve just survived a hurricane, and you have a “high-roller” group arriving in fifteen minutes. And then comes the kicker: “Can we bring in our German Shepherd?” You contemplate if it’s too late to call in sick.

Inclusive is the New Black

  If you have yet to hear, exclusive is out, and inclusive is in. Wine Country is in transition. Once upon a time, parents would leave their little darlings with Grandma and Grandpa for a weekend of serene wine tasting. No screams, barks, gravel fights, or corkscrew chases – just pure, undisturbed, oenophile bliss.

  But the landscape is shifting. Gone are the days when only adults graced the vineyards. Millennials and Gen Z are now our primary guests, and they have an entirely different vision of vacation based on their values and lifestyles.

chart reflecting USA fertility rates 1990-2023

The Millennial Way of Life

  Millennials – the primary purchasers of luxury wines – are adulting very differently than their parents or grandparents. Children are no longer “to be seen and not heard.” They incorporate children into their lives rather than revolve their lives around kids’ activities.

  These choices make sense if you consider they marry later, have kids later, and are parenting differently than previous generations. They marry around 30 (compared to Boomers at 23), and the average age for starting a family is between 30 and 34. With 15 years of a career established, they’ve built a firm adult foundation. So, they prefer to incorporate their kids into their activities rather than revolving everything around the kids. “Helicopter” parenting with structured times and schedules has given way to “drone” parenting, where the kids are encouraged to explore and gain confidence with new experiences. The 2023 Annual US Family Travel Survey revealed that 81% of parents plan to travel in the next 12 months, indicating a robust interest in family travel. (Traveling with the family is one of the major tourism trends in 2024). According to Travheir, 44% of millennials with children have traveled together, and 62% have included children under five. Many parents believe bringing along their children is essential for a child’s development. A recent study by the Family Travel Association found that 88% of families believe travel helps children overcome lingering pandemic impacts.

resident population in the united staets in 2022, by generation (in millions)

What Does This Mean for Wineries?

  With these generational changes, families and even pets will become more common at wineries, urban tasting rooms, and, yes, even at events. What is important to realize is that this isn’t laziness, selfishness, or just that they didn’t want to pay for a sitter. Showing up with kids demonstrates their values. They hold their inclusive belief system dear and will not want to see it challenged. In today’s “cancel” society, you might think twice before telling a feisty mom with a large online following that you didn’t want to allow her child on the patio. A quick search on Google will bring you dozens of outraged parents indignantly waiving one-star reviews.

chart showing resident population in the United States by 2022, by generation in millions

Adapt, Don’t Collapse

  This doesn’t mean you need to completely fold to pressure and allow children to run wild. With some forethought, you can make your experiences positive for well-behaved kids and your best adult guests. Wineries are no strangers to pivoting. Rainy day? Clear the bar for indoor tastings. The large group arrives early? Grab that chilled Pinot Grigio and entertain them in the garden while your team preps inside. The same flexibility applies to welcoming families. Happy parents are likelier to join wine clubs, buy bottles, and rave about their experience.

Planning for the Future

  Embrace the chaos and plan for it. Here are some ideas to make your winery more family and pet-friendly:

•    Kid Seating: There are no bar stools for the kids, but maybe some reserved outdoor tables with snacks like applesauce tubes, pretzels, and water. A coloring book and crayons can go a long way in keeping them occupied.

•    Kid Juice Tasting: Offer kids their “tasting” experience with various juices in plastic cups. They can swirl, sniff, and taste alongside their parents, perhaps even jotting down their impressions.

•    Tour Guide Games: Insurance permitting, why not engage kids with a scavenger hunt during tours? Flashlights in the cellar, leading the group – it’s all about making them feel involved and excited.

•    Selfie Stations: Set up a spot for fun photos, including their dog. Parents can share these on social media, and you can create a winery dog calendar as a special gift for wine club members.

•    Doggie Snacks: Go out with dog snack packs, perhaps from a company like Barkuterie. Consider a small, fenced area for dogs to roam off-leash if space allows.

Embrace the Change

  You survived the visit. The family bought four bottles, the kids didn’t set anything on fire, and they’re off to the next winery. Now, it’s time to reflect: what can you do to be more family-friendly? How can you welcome pets while ensuring everyone’s comfort? With some planning, you’ll enhance your guests’ experience and boost your bottom line.

  Susan DeMatei founded WineGlass Marketing; the largest full-service, award-winning marketing firm focused on the wine industry. She is a certified Sommelier and Specialist in Wine, with degrees in Viticulture and Communications, an instructor at Napa Valley Community College, and is currently collaborating on two textbooks. Now in its 12th year, her agency offers domestic and international wineries assistance with all areas of strategy and execution.

  WineGlass Marketing is located in Napa, California, and can be reached at 707-927-3334 or wineglassmarketing.com

Old Mill Vineyard

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Big-Time Wines from a Small-Town Winery

sign for old mill vineyard shown in grass and trees

By: Gerald Dlubala

  When it was time to move on from a career in the greens industry, where Kurt Grohsmeyer gained over three decades of experience growing everything from sod to shade trees, evergreens and everything else that grows in the ground, he and his wife Donna planted 400 grapevines on their rural Metamora Illinois property. Little did they know that by going in a different direction and planting grapevines to make wine for personal use and sharing with friends, that just nine years later, in 2014, they would successfully launch their own wine brand, Old Mill Vineyard Wines.

Increased Harvest, Tasting Room Addition Lead to a Full-Time Winery

  “Honestly, I didn’t know what I was doing,” said Grohsmeyer. “We started on 10 tillable acres the first year, with eight different varietals being planted side by side on an acre and a half.

  We just wanted to see what would survive and what wouldn’t. And you know what? Almost everything grew successfully. After that, we planted in increments, adding another acre or two to fill the ten acres. There wasn’t a real plan. The process just kind of morphed into a philosophy of, well, this works, so we’ll add more of it.”

  Grohsmeyer researched the best varietals for his growing zone, meeting with the IGGVA (Illinois Grape Growers & Vintners Alliance) and conducting his own independent research. This gave him direction on which varietals to choose to increase the likelihood of success in his growing zone.

  “The eight initial varietals we planted the first year included four reds and four whites,” said Grohsmeyer. “They all grew well enough to expand each one into their own acre, filling up eight acres. That gave us two remaining acres to add two more varietals.” Another challenge presented itself when it came time to harvest.

  “That first year, we harvested about five tons of grapes,” said Grohsmeyer. “I could handle a little bit of grapes because I initially intended to make some dry-style wines for my wife and her friends. But what to do with the rest was the question. So, I got hooked up with another vineyard in the area and sold grapes to them. From there, everything just took off and exploded on us. We went from harvesting five tons that first year to a harvest of 50 tons of grapes. It was sometimes overwhelming, but that’s when we knew and decided it was time to go full-time with the vineyard.”

  The Old Mill Vineyard averages about 35 to 40 tons of grapes annually. Grohsmeyer still sells some of his grapes to his original buyer, but as his winery, vineyard and on-site tasting room grows in popularity, he finds himself keeping more and selling less.

  “Our buyer is very understanding,” said Grohsmeyer. “He’s the largest producer in Northern Illinois and maybe the state. Actually, he was the one who, while looking at his grapes here, convinced me to take advantage of our scenic views and rolling vistas and build my own tasting room to sell our wines on-site. It was in 2016 that our tasting room, Bent Tree at OMV, became a reality. But as we sell more through our tasting room, we have to keep more of our grapes. We do all our own production, including harvest, crush, fermentation and on-site bottling. Our grapes and wine go from our vineyard to the barn to the tasting room.”

 Scenic Vistas and Comfortable Surroundings Accompany Excellent Wines

  Our place is nothing real elaborate,” said Grohsmeyer. “I still consider Old Mill Vineyard a cottage-type winery and vineyard. Most of the surrounding area is rural farmland, but in contrast, our property features beautiful rolling ground and timber, with a pond and barn setting. I built a tasting room building, planning to have enough seating I’ll ever need. Our tasting room can comfortably seat 30 to 40 inside, and we have as much outdoor seating as indoor.”

  Grohsmeyer tells The Grapevine Magazine that their busiest times start when the weather breaks in spring and last through late fall and early winter when the weather can turn nasty. But the Old Mill Vineyard is a great gathering spot all year round.

  “Our guests and visitors are welcome to come and sit wherever they choose,” said Grohsmeyer. “We can accommodate them indoors, out on the patio or folks are always welcome to bring lawn chairs and blankets to sit and hang out by the pond. We’ve even had people bring bouncy houses for their kids. That’s the situation and atmosphere that we want to promote. Our priority is for everyone to gather, feel welcome and enjoy good wine in our beautiful, well-shaded surroundings. We are kind of hidden from the road. Our entrance is on a corner sheltered by trees, so people tend to drive past a lot without even knowing we’re here. I would guess that some residents of Metamora don’t even know we are here. But once you pull off the road and get here, the landscape changes from the normal cornfields to the beautiful rolling hills of our vineyard.”

Follow Your Passion, Don’t Be Afraid to Experiment

  As happens frequently in the craft or cottage wine industry, what starts as a passionate hobby transforms into a small business. This was the case with Grohsmeyer. But along the way, he never stopped asking questions, seeking solutions or learning the processes for his local growing zone.

    “We started by making dry wines without any real experience,” said Grohsmeyer. “I’m not an experienced winemaker. I never did it before, and I never went to school or had any formal education in winemaking. I’ve never had or followed anyone else’s recipes, and to date, I have only delivered my grapes to two different buyers. But, when delivering grapes, I hung around and helped crush my grapes. I talked to the winemakers and asked questions about what, how and why they were doing the things they did. For me, it was a common sense and straightforward way to gain experience, gather information and learn the initial things in real time that I needed to do from current successful producers in my area. My current buyer has taught me the most of all. I use him as a resource for any questions and have no concerns about following his advice.”

  Grohsmeyer said that when he started making wine, he didn’t have enough vessels to put the wine in and, at the time, didn’t really know where to turn for more storage. He was fortunate to obtain a few used bourbon barrels from a friend’s trip. Grohsmeyer used them to store the excess wine and actually kind of forgot about them for six months. This was back in 2009, before it became the “in” thing to do in the craft wine and beverage market.

  “As it turns out, when we decided to try the wine that came out of them, it was excellent,” said Grohsmeyer. “The wine is a really good, nice dry red with a soft hint of bourbon. Now, this same red wine made from the Chancellor grape that gets aged six to 12 months in used Four Roses bourbon barrels and named Broken Barrel is a mainstay on our menu. It’s a wine for those who say they may not be a wine fan but prefer bourbon. Our Broken Barrel wine often turns non-wine drinkers into fans. It remains in the top two or three in popularity behind our Frontenac Blanc, our youngest and most popular grape. It’s a dry to semi-dry white wine that is a summer best-seller, maybe reminiscent of a Riesling. Everything here is cyclical. Winter and colder temperatures bring more popularity for the heavier reds. But honestly, you can think you made enough of a certain type and then find yourself taking two or three cases to the tasting room every weekend.”

Offering Quality Wine Choices for All Tastes Is Key

  Grohsmeyer said that they started out serving dry wine and continue to draw regular customers for those wines. As their visitor base grew, requests for sweeter wines increased, so Old Mill Vineyard also added those to its wine offerings.

  “Now we run about 60 percent dry and 40 percent sweet,” said Grohsmeyer. “We found that the actual grape varietal isn’t that much of an issue with sweet wines, as long as the proper flavor and sweetness level is there. Currently, we keep about 16 wines on the shelf. Twelve are varietal wines labeled by the grape type. The remaining sweet wines are generally a table grape of any varietal.

  Additionally, we offer a selection of national and craft beer, cider, seltzers, pop and sparkling options for non-wine drinkers. Whenever some of the local breweries get to the point of being able to can their products for distribution, we’ll certainly expand our local brew options.”

Having Fun While Working Hard

  “We are very much hands-on in the entire operation,” said Grohsmeyer.  “And although the work is demanding, both physically and timewise, we are out here still having fun.”

  Grohsmeyer started his winemaking journey at 50 years of age, which he says would probably have most people starting to think about a retirement plan. But he is proud to still be out there every day doing something in the vineyard or other related area. With his wife Donna, they run the Old Mill Vineyard operation from vineyard to tasting room to retail. Donna is in the tasting room every weekend. They have no immediate plans to slow down, as this is their retirement.

  “If you don’t have anything to do, you sit in the chair and gripe about the news or something,” said Grohsmeyer. “We’ll do it until we can’t. Even on days that I can’t get out into the vineyard due to the weather, I’ll still work in the winery or fix machinery. There really is always something to do. And when the vineyard is in your front and backyard, it’s hard to walk away from it.”

  Old Mill Vineyard wines are distributed in local stores, retail outlets and several places in nearby Peoria, about 25 minutes east of Metamora. Tastings also occur at retail liquor outlets, and some smaller customers may buy a case a month to sell to their patrons. Additionally, their wines are available in some local brewery taprooms.

  “You know, we don’t spend any money on advertising, and frankly, there’s probably people in our town that don’t even know we are here,” said Grohsmeyer. “We always believed that word of mouth would be enough, and we remain busy, even surprisingly so sometimes. Sometimes, we’re busier than we want, but we’re certainly not turning people away. That’s obviously what you want as a business. We’ve built up a great group of regulars and gain new ones all the time. One thing is for sure: it’s never the same. Even now, every weekend is a learning experience. And that’s just fine with us.”

  In addition to its inclusive wine line-up, Old Mill Vineyard offers a selection of crackers, cheeses and dips. Guests may also bring in their own food and snacks. Visitors are not allowed to bring outside alcohol onto the property.

  For more information on Old Mill Vineyard and its selection of wines, contact:

Old Mill Vineyard

700 Coon Creek Rd.

Metamora, Illinois 61548

(309) 258-9952

OldMillVineyard@msn.com

Planning to Purchase a Vineyard?

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Important Plant Health Issues to Take into Consideration

grapevines on a fence

By:  Judit Monis, Ph.D. – Vineyard and Plant Health Consultant

As many of you already know, I am a plant pathologist consultant specializing in the detection and control of grapevine diseases. The diseases work with are those that are graft transmitted but are also can spread in the vineyard.  Once the vines are planted, these diseases cannot be cured using chemical or other means.  It has happened too many times that I am called to determine what is wrong at a vineyard.  The story goes sometimes like this, “we purchased the vineyard in the winter, so we were unable to see any tell-tale signs of disease”, “we consulted with our county officer and s/he said things looked OK”; We really were not thinking about disease, we fell in love with the beautiful setting and the house”; “We did not know that red foliage is an indicator of virus infection”; the scenery in the fall season is an explosion of colors, so beautiful, so romantic”.  I can go on and on with more quotes buttthink that you understand the problem.  I wish these people would have called me before they purchased the vineyard.  Now it is a bit late.

  In this article, I will highlight issues that can become a problem after a vineyard purchase.  It is my hope to educate the reader and encourage them to contact me prior to signing the purchase contract to allow a thorough evaluation of the vineyard health status.

The Best Time to Inspect a Vineyard for Disease Presence

  As mentioned earlier I will only focus on graft transmitted diseases that cannot be cured once established in a vineyard.  Diseased grapevine plants may display different symptoms of infection  at different times of the year or seasons.  Early in the spring  and summer months it is easy to spot diseases caused by declining bacteria (i.e., Pierce’s disease, crown gall), fungi (Eutypa and Bot canker, black foot, etc.), and viruses (fanleaf and other nematode transmitted virus species).  In late summer or fall, viral diseases that cause leaf reddening and a variety of color schemes (leafroll, red blotch, Vitiviruses) can be observed.  To complicate matters, these diseases or their disease-causing agents can be found in all sorts of combinations.  Further, some of these diseases show almost exactly the same symptoms, in all cases a knowledgeable plant pathologist will be required to help identify the issue or recommend testing, especially when no symptoms are present due to seasonality.

  Below I describe some of the most important diseases likely present in vineyards:

Bacterial, Fungal and Viral Pathogens Best Detected in the Spring

Petri Disease, Young Vine Decline, Esca:  The disease in young vines, known as young vine decline, is caused by Cadophora, Phaeoacremonium, and Phaeomoniella species.  In older vines, the same fungal pathogens are associated with Esca disease.  The disease is chronic when vines express a gradual decline of symptoms over time, or acute when the vines decline and die within a few days.  These acute symptoms are known as the apoplectic stage of the disease. It is not uncommon during the apoplectic stage of the disease to see dead vines carrying mummified grape bunches.

Canker Diseases:  Various pathogens can cause canker symptoms, large discolored areas in trunk and canes, in the vineyard. Bot-canker or dead arm disease is caused by different species in the Botryosphaeriaceae family. Eutypa dieback is caused by different species in the Diatrypaceae family.  In my lab we characterized Seimatosporium species as a fungal pathogen that causes decline and cankers in grapevines, but within the same fungal group others have reported Pestalotoipsis and Truncatella to cause disease in grapevines. The canker symptoms observed in the sections of affected cordons or trunks in grapevines may appear to be similar but caused by unrelated fungal species.

Black Foot Disease:  Species of Campylocarpon, Cylindrocladiella, Dactylonectria, and Ilyonectria (previously known as Cylindrocarpon spp.) are the causal agents of this complex disease.   These fungi are soil-born and most active on compact soils with poor drainage.  Symptoms above ground can be indistinguishable from young vine/ Esca disease described above.  Additionally, the decline symptoms can be confused with Pierce’s disease (to be described below).

Grapevine Fanleaf and Other Nepoviruses

  Arabis mosaic (ArMV), Grapevine fanleaf (GFLV), Tobacco (TRSV) and Tomato ringspot (ToRSV) are viruses that cause decline in grapevine.  These are specifically transmitted in the vineyard by different nematodes in the Xiphinema species.  The symptoms caused by these viruses are very similar and include foliar deformation, vein banding, and most importantly uneven maturation and sparce production of berries.  Since this is a soilborne disease, it manifests in patches in the vineyard where the nematode vector is located.  The transmission, of course can happen through infected material, but not commonly as it is an easy virus to detect using various laboratory techniques.

Pathogens Best Detected in the Late Summer and Fall

Pierce’s and Crown Gall Disease:  Pierce’s disease is caused by Xylella fastidiosa, a bacteria transmitted by sharpshooter sucking insects.  The control of the disease is complicated as the bacteria infects many different plant species (i.e., has a broad host range).  The symptoms observed in early spring are vine decline and poor bud break, in the fall it is possible to observe typical “green islands” on the canes as well as the “match stick” symptoms.  Green islands are areas of the canes that do not mature evenly (uneven lignification), while match stick symptoms is a phenomenon in which the petioles remain attached to the canes while the leaf blade has fallen off.  Crown gall is caused by another bacteria: Agrobacterium vitis. The typical symptoms of crown gall disease are galling at the crown of the vine (hence its name), however galls can occur at the graft union or other areas of the vine. I have recently written about crown gall disease in grapevine and will not elaborate on this article. 

Fungal Pathogens and Mixed Infections:   The fungal pathogens and the crown gall bacteria mentioned above can be detected all year round and often occur in mixed infections with viruses and/or bacteria.  Some years ago, Central Valley growers in California reported a syndrome in which their vines collapse and die within a short period of time.  While working at STA (the laboratory I developed that specialized in grapevine diagnostics) we tested vines with similar symptoms, not just from California’s Central Valley but also from California’s Central Coast vineyards.  We detected a combination of fungal pathogens (not always the same usual suspects) and viruses, such as Grapevine leafroll associated -3 (GLRaV-3) and the Vitiviruses Grapevine virus A and F.

Grapevine Leafroll and Red Blotch:  Although the symptoms observed in vines infected with Grapevine leafroll and red blotch viruses are similar, these diseases are caused by different viral species.  The symptoms are observed in the late summer and fall and appear as a display of a palette of different colors.  Some species of leafroll are transmitted non-specifically by mealybugs while red blotch virus was reported to be transmitted by plant hoppers in the Membracidae family, In the next Grapevine Magazine issue I plan to write an article with more details on epidemiology and management of these diseases. Stay tuned!  

Conclusions

  The purchase of a vineyard is a huge investment and because of this It is important to take into consideration its plant health prior to purchase.  Because symptoms of disease vary along the different seasons, I recommend planning to test a representative sample for important diseases during the due diligence period. Be aware that certain viruses/pathogens are detected more readily in different seasons.  This is why it is so important to hire a knowledgeable professional that can walk you through the process. 

  My philosophy is always prevention, so my recommendation to buyers as well as sellers is to be aware of the infection status of planting material, this will avoid the presence of detrimental pathogens in the vineyard in the first place.

  Judit Monis, Ph.D. provides specialized services to help growers, vineyard managers, and nursery personnel avoid the propagation and transmission of diseases caused by bacteria, fungi, and viruses in their vineyard blocks.   Judit (based in California) is also fluent in Spanish is available to consult in all wine grape growing regions of the world.  For more information or to request a consulting session at your vineyard please contact juditmonis@yahoo.com or visit www.juditmonis.com